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The Science Of Cannabis Extraction

Written by Johnny Green on . Posted in Business, Science.

It is unclear when humans first started extracting cannabinoids from the cannabis plant to make concentrated forms of cannabis. The topic is somewhat difficult to pin down due to various reasons, not the least of which is answering the question, ‘what constitutes extracting cannabis?’

Cannabis extracts can come in many forms, including cannabis oils and hashish, both of which humans have created for centuries. Regardless of when humans first started extracting cannabinoids from the cannabis plant, these days, cannabis extracts are one of the most in-demand forms of cannabis around the world.

The cannabis extraction sector of the emerging global cannabis industry is currently undergoing significant changes from nearly every angle, including regulations, technology, and shifting consumer and patient demands.

As the international cannabis import/export market continues to develop, products using cannabis extracts as inputs will increase in popularity, including solventless extract products and new products involving lesser-known cannabinoids.

The science behind cannabis extraction was the focus of a panel discussion at the recent International Cannabis Business Conference in Berlin, Germany. The panel was moderated by Michael Knodt, a freelance journalist and author of Cannabis-Extraktion. Mr. Knodt was joined on the panel by:

  • Nick Brousianos, CEO of Cannabreeze
  • Yogesh Jhamtani, CEO and Co-Founder of Buffalo Extraction Systems
  • Serge Korovitsyn, Founder of LabCradle
  • Steve Fuhr, Director of Sales and Business Development at SciPhy Systems

You can view the panel discussion in its entirety at this link here.

hemp cannabis leaf leaves plant

South African Researchers Detect “Rare Compounds” In Cannabis Leaves

Written by Johnny Green on . Posted in Science.

The leaves of cannabis plants are often considered to be waste by some cannabis cultivators and destroyed. However, recent research conducted in South Africa is shedding new light on why cannabis leaves may contain useful compounds.

Two researchers affiliated with the Department of Chemistry and Polymer Science at the University of Stellenbosch conducted a “comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatographic analysis of cannabis phenolics,” with their findings being published in the Journal of Chromatography A.

“Compared to the well-studied cannabinoids and terpenoids, characterization of the phenolic composition of Cannabis has received little attention.” the researchers stated about their investigation. “With studies reporting synergistic effects in Cannabis, the importance of investigating polyphenols in Cannabis is becoming more apparent.”

“We report an on-line comprehensive 2D HILIC × RP-LC method hyphenated to high resolution (HR) MS for the detailed characterization of polar phenolics in Cannabis inflorescence and leaf samples of three commercial strains.” the researchers wrote. “Optimal HILIC × RP-LC conditions were derived using an automated method optimization program, and provided excellent separation performance (peak capacity > 3000) and high orthogonality. Diode array and HR-MS data enabled tentative identification of 79 compounds, comprising mainly flavone and (hydroxy)cinnamic acid derivatives.”

“The presence of three C-glycosylated flavones, as well as several of their O-glycosylated derivatives, distinguished one of the strains from the other two. In the same strain, flavoalkaloids were detected, mainly in the leaf extracts. The structures of the alkaloid moieties could not be unambiguously assigned based on the available HR-MS data, but four classes of flavoalkaloids comprising 16 flavone derivates could be tentatively identified.” the researchers found.

“This is the first time that this relatively rare and chemically interesting class of compounds has been detected in Cannabis. These findings highlight the diversity of Cannabis, and the utility of HILIC × RP-LC-HR-MS for the in-depth study of its phenolic composition.” the researchers concluded.

The results of this study in South Africa demonstrate that while humans know more about the cannabis plant now than ever before, there is still a lot left to be discovered, and that is true for the leaves of cannabis plants just as much as it is for other parts of the plant.

“Our analysis again highlights the medicinal potential of cannabis plant material, currently regarded as waste. Cannabis exhibits a rich and unique non-cannabinoid phenolic profile, which could be relevant from a biomedical research perspective,” stated Prof. André de Villiers, one of the authors of the study.

cannabis joints

Japanese Study Refutes Cannabis ‘Gateway Drug’ Theory

Written by Johnny Green on . Posted in Policy, Science.

When it comes to cannabis opponent talking points, the ‘cannabis is a gateway drug’ talking point may be the most popular one of all time. Cannabis opponents have frequently claimed that cannabis use will lead to the use of more harmful substances, going back to the reefer madness era.

The cannabis gateway drug theory went unquestioned for a long time. However, it has become the focus of a growing amount of peer-reviewed research in recent decades, including in Japan, where a team of investigators examined relevant data to test the theory.

A team of researchers affiliated with several health and academic institutions in Japan conducted an analysis of nationwide survey results that asked about substance use. The researchers’ findings were published in the journal Neuropsychopharmacology Reports.

“In Japan, cannabis is frequently labeled a “gateway drug,” yet strong causal evidence for progression to other substances is limited. This study investigates whether cannabis acts as a gateway drug among Japanese users.” the researchers stated about the focus of their effort.

An anonymous online survey was conducted in Japan in January 2021 involving 3900 individuals who reported their lifetime cannabis use. The survey of Japanese residents “gathered data on demographics, cannabis and other substance use history, order of substance initiation, psychiatric background, and criminal records.”

“A Sankey diagram visualized substance use progression, and odds ratios were calculated to assess the likelihood of using other substances following cannabis use.” the researchers stated about their methodology.

“Tobacco and alcohol were the most common initial substances, while cannabis was typically the third. Odds for subsequent use of alcohol, tobacco, methamphetamine, and other illicit drugs after cannabis use were 1.25, 0.77, 0.08, and 0.78, respectively, suggesting low probabilities of progression. Nearly half of those who reported cannabis as their third drug did not use other substances afterward.” the researchers determined.

“These findings challenge the gateway hypothesis in the Japanese context. Shared vulnerabilities and strict drug policies may shape these patterns. Further research is warranted to explore the impact of legal changes on drug use behavior.” the researchers concluded.

The recent study results in Japan build on research in other jurisdictions around the globe that have also arrived at similar conclusions. The misuse of household products and pharmaceutical medications is also often found to precede cannabis use, and whether someone decides to use more harmful substances after using cannabis is due to many factors and not due to the subject simply having tried cannabis.

smoke

Cannabis Study Highlights Deficiencies Of Hair Follicle Tests

Written by Johnny Green on . Posted in Science.

Drug testing is very common across the globe, and for better or worse, it is big business. A recent market analysis found that the global drug testing industry is worth $14.67 billion in 2025, and is projected to grow to $23.05 billion in market value by 2034.

While the estimated current value and future growth of the analysis are for testing for all substances, and cannabis testing is just a subsector of the wider industry, it generally highlights how much money is involved in the world of cannabis testing.

The motivation behind testing for cannabis use is questionable at best, in my opinion. Obviously, no responsible person wants people to be impaired while operating a motor vehicle on a public roadway or to be impaired while operating dangerous equipment while working. However, testing for cannabis impairment is not an exact science, as evidenced by the results of a recent scientific investigation conducted in Italy.

A team of researchers affiliated with various health and academic institutions in Italy examined the results of hair follicle tests that focused on detecting the presence of the cannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The findings from the examination were published in the journal Forensic Science International.

“The aim of the present study was to assess whether detectable hair levels of Δ9-THC and CBD could arise in vivo from short, single and repeated passive exposure to cannabis and “light cannabis” and whether the two products could be distinguished.” the researchers stated about the focus of their study.

“Four volunteers underwent weekly 15-minute exposures to low-Δ9-THC (0.5 %) cannabis smoke, delivered by a pump inside a car, over a month. After 1 month of washout, exposures were repeated with the same scheme with high-Δ9-THC (5 %). Hair and urines samples were collected after each exposure. Hair samples were tested, with and without a washing step (total n = 72), by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for Δ9-THC and CBD. Urines were tested for drug metabolites (LOD: 1.66 ng/ml).” the researchers stated about their methodology.

“No accumulation of drugs over exposures was shown. Urines always tested negative. Washed hair samples were positive for CBD (mean 0.05 ng/mg) after exposure to low-Δ9-THC cannabis, and for Δ9-THC (mean 0.02 ng/mg) after exposure to high-Δ9-THC cannabis, with levels also typical of drug use.” the researchers found.

“Our study showed that hair contamination could arise in vivo even after short single exposures to cannabis and “light cannabis”, underlining the need for a careful interpretation of results of hair analysis in forensic toxicology.” the researchers concluded.

In laypeople’s terms, the results of the study found that simply being around cannabis smoke was enough for a hair follicle test to determine that a person had THC in their system, and thus ‘was a cannabis consumer,’ even though that may not actually be the case. It highlights one of the many deficiencies of hair follicle testing when it comes to cannabis, and why the widespread use of hair follicle testing for determining cannabis use is ridiculous.

stomach pain

Italian Study Finds Cannabis Helps Fibromyalgia Patients

Written by Johnny Green on . Posted in Science.

Fibromyalgia is one of the biggest health conditions facing the global community in modern times, with international researchers estimating that fibromyalgia affects between two and eight percent of the world’s population.

The exact number of people suffering from fibromyalgia worldwide is unknown, with many countries’ health systems being deficient in properly identifying and diagnosing the serious health condition. Unfortunately, many sufferers remain undiagnosed and untreated.

Fibromyalgia is a long-term, chronic health condition that involves widespread musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, and the sufferer experiencing significant pain when they are touched. The pain, in turn, can affect nearly every aspect of the patient’s daily life.

It wasn’t until recent decades that standardized criteria for diagnosing fibromyalgia were established, and proper therapies were developed. Medical cannabis is an area of treatment that is being explored at an increasing rate for fibromyalgia, and was at the heart of a recent study conducted in Italy.

“Fibromyalgia (FM) is frequently associated with gastrointestinal (GI) disorders such as disorders of gut-brain interaction (DGBIs). Current treatments for FM offer limited relief, leading to the exploration of alternative therapies such as medical cannabis.” the researchers stated about the focus of their investigation. The study’s findings were published in the journal Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology.

“Sixty FM patients were enrolled, receiving a Bedrocan® cannabis treatment for 6 months. A standardised questionnaire evaluating upper and lower GI symptoms and the Revised Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire (FIQR) evaluating FM severity were administered at enrolment and 3 and 6-month follow-up evaluations. DGBIs, in particular, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and functional dyspepsia (FD) were diagnosed according to Rome IV criteria.” the researchers stated about their methodology.

“The FIQR severity score log-transformed significantly decreased during the months-by-month comparison period (repeated-measures ANOVA, p<0.001). Among GI symptoms, the log-transformed intensity-frequency score of epigastric pain, epigastric burning, abdominal pain, abdominal distension, and bloating significantly decreased during the month-by-month comparison period (repeated-measures ANOVA, p<0.01).” the researchers found.

As acknowledged by the researchers leading the study, there were limitations to the study’s results, not the least of which was the relatively small sample size involved. As with all studies, people need to keep the results in proper context and consult their doctors to determine if medical cannabis is the right treatment for them. Still, the results of this study are promising and give people information to consider.

cannabis plant

Canadian Study Highlights The THC Variability Of Cannabis Flower

Written by Johnny Green on . Posted in Science.

I have long theorized that part of the reason why it has taken so long for governments around the world to modernize their cannabis policies is that it is harder to regulate due to how variable cannabinoid levels are in harvests, at least compared to other crops.

Anyone who has cultivated cannabis knows how hard it is to cultivate the crop uniformly. Someone can cultivate the same strain in the same environment, and the quality and quantity of the flower from different plants can differ despite most things being equal. It gets even trickier when cultivating cannabis on a large scale, and only a short list of master growers can knock out large quality harvests reliably.

The variability of THC content in cannabis flower cultivated in greenhouses was at the heart of a recent study conducted in Canada by researchers affiliated with the Pure Sunfarms Corporation. Their findings were published in the academic journal Scientific Reports.

“Cannabis sativa and C. indica dried cannabis total Delta-9 Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is of importance to consumers/patients and must be accurately reported for both recreational and medical dried flower. In this report, the variation in Total THC in THC-dominant commercially relevant cultivars was investigated.” the researchers wrote.

“The variation in Total THC values within different strata of the plant and between plants of the same batch were explored using a single analytical method. Within one stratum across nine batches (n = 27–57), Total THC varied by 3.1–6.7% of actual content, with only ~ 30–41% of individual replicates falling within their respective 99% confidence internal (CI) (representative of the batch mean).” the researchers wrote about their methodology.

“Between the top and bottom of plants across three batches, Total THC varied by 4.7–6.1% of actual THC content. Between plants of one cultivar, average Total THC varied by 2.8% which was statistically significant (p < 0.0001).” the researchers found.

The variability of THC in cannabis harvests isn’t just important to the cultivators, consumers, and patients, but also to government regulators who often have to enforce unrealistic THC industry standards. That is especially true in the hemp industry, where harvests cannot exceed a certain THC threshold, typically between .2 and 2 percent. If a hemp harvest exceeds the THC percentage threshold, the entire harvest has to be destroyed.

This is why it makes far more sense to set THC caps at the end-product stage of the process rather than at the harvest stage. If there is a cap on THC content for flower, such as what is in place for flower sold in Uruguay’s pharmacies, then any flower that exceeds the set limit can be used for making other products, such as edibles, topicals, and concentrates.

skin care lotion

Research Finds That Nanoformulated CBD Is Effective For Skin Conditions

Written by Johnny Green on . Posted in Science.

Skin conditions, such as acne, psoriasis, and eczema, affect millions of people worldwide. International researchers estimate that over 125 million people suffer from just eczema alone, with roughly 30% of those eczema sufferers eventually developing psoriatic arthritis.

A team of researchers affiliated with various academic universities in India and Australia recently examined the efficacy of nanoformulated cannabidiol as a treatment for serious skin conditions and wound care. Their findings were published in the European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics.

“Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive chemical derived from Cannabis sativa L., has significant dermatological potential due to its antinflammatory, antioxidant, and wound healing attributes.” the researchers wrote. “However, its clinical usage is limited by instability, minimal skin penetration, and poor solubility.”

“Nanotechnology-based delivery systems such as pickering emulsions, cryogels, lipid nanoparticles, and nanomicelles have emerged as promising strategies to enhance localized skin delivery, improve penetration, enable sustained release, and reduce adverse effects.” they also wrote.

“According to this analysis of 16 papers and 18 patents (2019-2024), CBD that has been nanoformulated offers improved tolerability, sustained release, and skin delivery. According to GRADE review, impacts on dermal absorption, inflammation, and wound healing demonstrated intermediate certainty, but outcomes such as skin penetration, controlled release, and safety showed high certainty.” the researchers found.

“Applications for acne, psoriasis, and eczema show enhanced patient compliance and efficacy. Despite clinical and regulatory obstacles, nano-CBD platforms provide a safe, focused, and efficient approach to improving dermatological care.” the researchers concluded.

A recent market analysis by The Business Research Company estimated that the global cannabis cosmetics market will grow “from $5.48 billion in 2024 to a projected total of $7.29 billion in 2025 at an impressive compound annual growth rate CAGR of 32.8%.”

back pain

Low-Dose Cannabis Extracts Could Help Pain Patients

Written by Johnny Green on . Posted in Science.

Chronic pain is one of the most common and serious health conditions around the world. International researchers estimate that as many as 20% of adults suffer from chronic pain globally, and that percentage could rise in the future with more adults being diagnosed every year.

Common treatments for pain include over-the-counter medications, prescription pharmaceutical painkillers, and, in more extreme cases of chronic pain, injections, nerve blocks, and radiofrequency ablation.

The potential side effects of the previously listed pain management options are numerous, including but not limited to: constipation, breathing issues, nausea, chest pains, drowsiness, diarrhea, headaches, and even death. Many pharmaceutical painkillers are very addictive.

A team of researchers affiliated with various academic and health institutions based in Argentina and Ecuador recently examined low-dose cannabis extracts as a treatment for chronic pain. Their findings were published in the Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy.

“The aim of this work was to assess the effectiveness of full-spectrum cannabis (THC and CBD) extracts as adjuvants in the treatment of chronic pain.” the researchers wrote. “This is a prospective, open label, longitudinal study. Major cannabinoids were analyzed in herbal preparations using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Subjects were included when chronic pain diagnosis criteria was met according to physicians’ diagnosis.”

“A patient stratification protocol was developed using a visual analogue scale to measure pain, a numerical scale for life quality parameters and a self-administered health survey. Eighty-eight patients aged between 35 and 88 years were included.” the researchers stated about their methodology.

“A significant decrease in both pain and other life quality parameters was observed between time zero and subsequent time intervals, excepting the “appetite” variable. Overall, 51 individuals reported a decrease in pain, 38 a decrease in anxiety and 48 in insomnia, with “decrease” defined as symptom reduction of 50% or more between the first and last consultation. In addition, 23 subjects reduced or discontinued other analgesics and/or anti-inflammatory drugs during the trial.” the researchers found.

“Adverse effects were mild and reversible. These results are consistent with previous studies, supporting effectiveness and safety of cannabis extracts as adjuvants in the treatment of chronic pain.” the researchers concluded.

hemp plant

Study Finds That Hemp Fiber Possesses Antibacterial Properties

Written by Johnny Green on . Posted in Science.

Bacterial infections are one of the top public health issues around the world, with bacterial infections being directly responsible for an estimated 1.27 million deaths annually around the globe, and contributing to another 4.95 million deaths.

Even in cases that do not tragically end in the patient dying, bacterial infections still cause a lot of pain and suffering, and in extreme cases have lasting effects on the suffering patient. Fortunately, the hemp plant may be able to help.

A team of researchers affiliated with Tarsus University in Türkiye recently conducted a study that examined hemp fiber’s potential antibacterial properties. The study’s findings were published in the academic journal Cellulose.

“This study focused on the extraction of cellulose from hemp fiber and production of carbonized nanocelluloses (CCN) from cellulose, characterization, antibiotic loading and investigation of antibacterial properties of cellulose and CCN.” the researchers stated about the focus of their study.

“Cellulose with a diameter of approximately 4.5 μm was successfully extracted from the untreated hemp fiber that had an average diameter of approximately 10 μm. After the acid hydrolysis, the dried hemp fiber powders were subjected to preoxidation and carbonization and then CCN with a diameter of 34.7 nm was produced. Ciprofloxacin (CIP) was selected as the model antibiotic for investigation of the antibacterial property of the cellulose and CCN.” the researchers stated about their methodology.

“The antibacterial activity studies showed that although pristine cellulose and CCN had considerable antibacterial property their modification with CIP (C + CIP and CCN + CIP) increased their activity. At 50 mg mL⁻¹ concentrations, the antibiofilm effectiveness for CCN and cellulose were found to be 52.38% and 4.28%, respectively. The antibiofilm activity of CCN + CIP was also found to be higher than that of cellulose + CIP against both P. aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus in the concentrations range studied and the antibiofilm activity was observed to be 94.74% and 86.62% for CCN + CIP and cellulose + CIP, respectively, at 50 mg mL⁻¹.” the researchers found.

“All these results showed that CIP could successfully be loaded onto carbonized nanocelluloses extracted from hemp fibers and they showed considerable antibacterial properties.” the researchers concluded.

The recent study conducted in Türkiye builds on previous research focused on the hemp plant’s antibacterial properties, which found that hemp oil “can inhibit or reduce bacterial growth.”